1.Geothermal Energy
WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water and/or steam carry the geothermal energy to the Earth’s surface. Depending on its characteristics, geothermal energy can be used for heating and cooling purposes or be harnessed to generate clean electricity.
Geological Survey of India has found around 340 hot springs across India. India has 5 geothermal provinces and a number of geothermal springs. Geothermal resources in India have been mapped by GSI and broad estimate suggests that there could be 10 gigawatt (GW) geothermal power potential, as per the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Examples of Geothermal Fields in INDIA’
Examples of Geothermal Fields in India
- Puga geothermal field
- Chhumathang geothermal field
- Manikaran geothermal field
- Beas valley
- Satluj and spiti valley
- Tapoban geothermal field, Chamoli, Uttarakhand and Alaknanda Valley
- Tatapani geothermal field
- Salbardi region
- Anhoni- Samoni area
- Unkeshwar
- Godavari Graben
- Andaman-Nicobar region
- Damodar Valley basins
- Western thermal province
- Cambay geothermal region
- Konkan geothermal provinces
- Sohna thermal region
- Tuwa and Chhabsar geothermal fields, Gujarat
- Lasundra geothermal province
Two basic types of geothermal heat resources that can be harnessed.
- Hydrothermal Heat Source : –
In this the heat is transferred by water to the surface, water is recharged into the ground by rain or surface bodies (like river, lakes or glaciers) and is then heated by underlying hot rock which is hot due to seismic or volcanic activity.
The presence of hot springs in Iceland, The Himalayas, and The Alps is an example of this. The lithology of the area needs to permeable so that it can allow water to flow freely, it is necessary to recharge the system and also for the hot water to come up
- The second type of resource extraction can be done by Deep/Enhanced Geothermal systems in which a deep borehole is dug to reach the hot basal rock and then water is pumped into the holes to obtain steam, which is aimed to run a turbine.
Accessing the deep basal rock bed is an expensive process and hence this method isn’t as popular.
Challenges
- The Resource and Location
There is geothermal energy beneath the entirety of the earth’s surface, but not all of that energy can be harnessed. There is only a small percentage of land that lies above suitable pockets of water and steam that can heat homes or power electrical plants, limiting the possibility of installation of geothermal power plants. Many of the places that are ideal for providing substantial amounts of geothermal energy that can be converted into electricity are also located in areas that are extremely tectonically active. When there is a constant risk of earthquakes or volcanic activity, corporations are hesitant to install large-scale electricity generating facilities.
- Infrastructure
Aside from the lack of adequate resources, one of the reasons that geothermal electricity is not widely used in the United States is due to a lack of infrastructure for it. By nature, a geothermal energy source could only be used to produce the baseline power for an electrical grid which causes problems in and of itself. Equipment for drilling wells and setting up power plants is extraordinarily expensive and training people to staff a geothermal power plant is time consuming and costly. There is also the restriction of where the geothermal energy can be used. Once the energy is extracted from the underground wells, it cannot be transported to a different facility whose grid is more in need, it has to be used as it is extracted.
- High Cost
Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from around $2-$7 million for a plant with a 1 megawatt capacity. However, where the upfront costs are high, the outlay can be recouped as part of a long-term investment.
- Renewable Does Not Mean Unlimited
Contrary to popular belief, the water and steam that is extracted from the earth is not boundless. Every well only has so much water that can be extracted and without proper reinjection of used water back into the wells, there is not enough pressure to propel the steam and water upwards. If the pressure gradient is not adequately reestablished, not only is there the potential for the energy source to dwindle, but there is also the possibility of greater geological impacts like the creation of sink holes.
- Location Restricted
The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location specific. Geothermal plants need to be built in places where the energy is accessible, which means that some areas are not able to exploit this resource. Of course, this is not a problem if you live in a place where geothermal energy is readily accessible, such as Iceland.
- Environmental Side Effects
Although geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse gases, there are many of these gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the atmosphere during digging. While these gases are also released into the atmosphere naturally, the rate increases near geothermal plants. However, these gas emissions are still far lower than those associated with fossil fuels.
- Earthquakes
Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with enhanced geothermal power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures to greater exploitation of the resource. However, since most geothermal plants are away from population centres, the implications of these earthquakes are relatively minor.
- Sustainability
In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be pumped back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.
It is important for industry to assess the geothermal energy pros and cons in order to take account of the advantages while mitigating against any potential problems.
2.Cryoconite
Cryoconite is a dark-colored, powdery substance found on the surface of glaciers and ice sheets.
FEATURES
● It is composed of a mixture of fine sediment, organic matter, and sometimes cyanobacteria or algae.
● Cryoconite forms in small, irregularly shaped holes known as cryoconite holes, which are essentially meltwater pools on the ice surface that have accumulated sediment and organic material.
● The dark color of cryoconite absorbs more solar radiation than the surrounding ice, creating a localized warming effect that
increases melting.
● This process contributes to the formation and growth of cryoconite holes, which can act as small ecosystems, harboring a variety of microorganisms.
3.The International Criminal Court (ICC)
Overview
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and tribunal based in The Hague, Netherlands. It was established in 2002 as a permanent court to prosecute individuals for the most serious crimes of international concern, including genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
The ICC operates under the Rome Statute, which is an international treaty that serves as the court’s foundational document. Countries that become parties to the Rome Statute agree to the jurisdiction of the ICC and to cooperate with its investigations and prosecutions. As of my knowledge cutoff in 2023, over 120 countries are members of the ICC.
Key features of the ICC include:
Jurisdiction: The ICC has jurisdiction over crimes committed by nationals of states that are party to the Rome Statute or within the territory of states that are party to the treaty. It can also exercise jurisdiction over crimes committed in states that are not party to the treaty if the United Nations Security Council refers the situation to the ICC.
Investigation and Prosecution: The ICC has its own prosecutor who can initiate investigations either on their own initiative or upon referral by a state party or the United Nations Security Council. The court has conducted investigations and prosecutions in various countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Sudan, the Central African Republic, Mali, Libya, Ivory Coast, and others.
Complementarity Principle: The ICC operates on the principle of complementarity, meaning it will only step in if national judicial systems are unwilling or unable to genuinely investigate or prosecute crimes under the Rome Statute. The court is designed to be a court of last resort and aims to support, not replace, national criminal justice systems. Independence: The ICC is independent of the United Nations, although it cooperates with the UN and its member states. It receives funding from the contributions of its member states.
● The ICC has faced criticism and challenges, including accusations of bias against African states, difficulties in securing cooperation from states for arrests and evidence-gathering, and concerns about the effectiveness and fairness of its proceedings.
● Some countries, including the United States, Israel, and Russia, have not
ratified the Rome Statute and have been critical of the court’s jurisdiction
and operations.
● Despite these challenges, the ICC remains an important institution in the international legal system, aiming to ensure that the most serious international crimes do not go unpunished and to provide a measure of justice for the victims of such crimes
4.Sucralose
NEWS
A recent study from India examining the effects of replacing sucrose or table sugar with an artificial sweetener, sucralose, in coffee and tea, found no adverse impact on glucose or HbA1c levels, and in fact indicated a slight improvement in body weight, waist circumference and body mass index (BMI).
● Sucralose is a synthetic, non-caloric artificial sweetener.
● It is approximately 600 times sweeter than sugar, making it a popular choice for use in a variety of food and beverage products as a sugar substitute.
● Sucralose is produced by chlorinating sucrose, a process that replaces three hydroxyl groups with chlorine atoms.
Key points about sucralose include:
Zero Calories: Sucralose does not provide calories when consumed, making it an attractive option for those looking to reduce their calorie intake.
Stability: It is heat-stable and does not break down when exposed to high temperatures,
which means it can be used in baking and cooking.
Digestion: Sucralose is not metabolized by the body, and most of it is excreted unchanged in the feces. Only a small amount is absorbed into the bloodstream and is eventually excreted in the urine.
Safety: Sucralose has been extensively studied and is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other regulatory agencies worldwide. It has been approved for use in over 100 countries.
Environmental Impact: There has been some concern about the environmental impact of sucralose, particularly its persistence in water sources. It is not effectively removed by conventional water treatment methods, and its long-term effects on aquatic ecosystems are still being studied.
Use in Products: Sucralose is used in a wide range of products, including soft drinks, tabletop sweeteners, baked goods, ice cream, and other desserts. It is often marketed under brand names such as Splenda.
Regulatory Approval: The approval process for sucralose involved extensive toxicological studies to ensure its safety for human consumption. It was first approved for use in the United States in 1998 and has since been approved for use in many other countries. While sucralose is considered safe for consumption by regulatory bodies, some individuals may have concerns about the use of artificial sweeteners. As with any food additive, some people may experience adverse reactions or prefer to avoid it for personal reasons.
5.Methane mitigator
NEWS
India has discovered and isolated indigenous methanotrophs, bacteria that naturally mitigate methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
- Researchers have identified novel methanotrophs from rice fields and wetlands in Western India, including a new genus and species named Methylocucumis oryzae.
- These bacteria are efficient in oxidizing methane, converting it to CO₂ and water.
- Methylocucumis oryzae is notable for its large size, unique oval shape, and strict temperature requirements, as it cannot grow above 37°C.
This methanotroph has also been found to enhance rice plant growth, promoting earlier flowering and increased grain yield.